The ability of humans to change the genetics of animals took an enormous step forward in 1974 when Rudolf Jaenisch could produce the first transgenic mammal, by integrating DNA from simians into the genome of mice. In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos, then given to humans. On 3 November 1957, a Soviet dog, Laika, became the first of many animals to orbit the Earth. Insulin was first isolated from dogs in 1922, and later revolutionized the treatment of diabetes. Between 19, the Germans infected mules in Argentina bound for American forces, resulting in the death of 200 mules. In World War I, German agents infected sheep bound for Russia with anthrax, and inoculated mules and horses of the French cavalry with the equine glanders disease. In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning. In the 1880s, Robert Koch infected mice and guinea pigs with anthrax and tuberculosis. In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur convincingly showed the germ theory of medicine by inducing anthrax in sheep. In 1831, the founders of the Dublin Zoo were members of the medical profession who were interested in studying animals while they were alive and when they were dead. Īnimals have repeatedly been used throughout the history of biomedical research. Avenzoar, a 12th-century Arabic physician in Moorish Spain introduced an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Galen, a 2nd-century Roman physician, performed post-mortem dissections of pigs and goats. Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals. The earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE. Main article: History of animal testing An Experiment on a Bird in an Air Pump, from 1768, by Joseph Wright The following text excludes as much as possible practices related to in vivo veterinary surgery, which is left to the discussion of vivisection. The word "vivisection" is preferred by those opposed to this research, whereas scientists typically use the term "animal experimentation". The word has a negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The term is occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica defines "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes more broadly, all experimentation on live animals", although dictionaries point out that the broader definition is "used only by people who are opposed to such work". Literally, "vivisection" means "live sectioning" of an animal, and historically referred only to experiments that involved the dissection of live animals. The terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research, in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations. In 2022, a law was passed in the United States that eliminated the FDA requirement that all drugs be tested on animals. In 2013 it was reported that mammals (mice and rats), fish, amphibians, and reptiles together accounted for over 85% of research animals. By one estimate, the number of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million. In the European Union, vertebrate species represent 93% of animals used in research, and 11.5 million animals were used there in 2011. It was estimated in 2010 that the annual use of vertebrate animals-from zebrafish to non-human primates-ranges from tens to over 100 million. The practice is regulated to varying degrees in different countries. In education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses. Examples of applied research include testing disease treatments, breeding, defense research, and toxicology, including cosmetics testing. The focus of animal testing varies on a continuum from pure research, focusing on developing fundamental knowledge of an organism, to applied research, which may focus on answering some questions of great practical importance, such as finding a cure for a disease. Experimental research with animals is usually conducted in universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, defense establishments, and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to the industry. This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments or habitats. Around 50–100 million vertebrate animals are used in experiments annually.Īnimal testing, science, medicine, animal welfare, animal rights, ethicsĪnimal testing, also known as animal experimentation, animal research, and in vivo testing, is the use of non-human animals in experiments that seek to control the variables that affect the behavior or biological system under study.
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